STUDIES & RESOURCEs for teachers, educators and instructoRS

Changes in Upper Limb Coordination and Kinematics following a Five Week Instructional Unit in Cup Stacking Chris K. Rhea, Kathy Ludwig, and Monique Mokha. Barry University, Miami Shores, FL

Cup stacking is a sport played in over 6600 physical education and after school programs in the United States. The leading manufacturer, Speed Stacks, Inc., claims that cup stacking promotes hand-eye coordination, ambidexterity, quickness, concentration, and bilateral proficiency. Since the sport is still fairly new, there have only been a few scientific studies that have investigated the influence of cup stacking (Conn, 2003; Hart, Smith, & DeChant, 2003; Udermann, Murray, Mayer, & Sagendorf, 2003) on psychomotor parameters.

The purpose of this study was to measure upper limb coordination changes using a five week cup stacking intervention. The specific aims of this study were to measure upper limb coordination changes with a star tracer task and to three-dimensionally analyze the sport of cup stacking. We used the Peak Performance Motion Analysis System (Motus Ver. 7.3.2, Centennial, CO.) to measure cup clearance height and time to up stack.

A one-way MANCOVA was used to analyze the results. The independent variable for this study was cup stacking instruction. The dependent variables for this study were the post-test star tracer times, post-test star tracer errors, post-test up stack times, and post-test cup clearance heights. All pre-test scores were used as a covariate to investigate differences between groups in the post-tests. Significance differences were evaluated with alpha set at 0.05.

One of the variables investigated showed statistical significance. The groups were significantly different (Lambda(6,12) = .749, F = 5.98, p < .005) in the star tracer post-test times when the star tracer pre-test times were used as a covariate. No significant differences were found between groups in the post-tests of the star tracer errors , time to up stack , or cup clearance height.

We found that cup stacking has a positive effect on the development of bilateral coordination in sixth grade physical education students. Although only one significant difference was found, trends were found in the kinematic data to suggest that better performance may have occurred with more practice time. The results of this study suggest that cup stacking may lead to better development of bilateral coordination.

Steven R. Murray, Brian E. Udermann, David M. Reineke, and Rebecca A. Battista

Sport stacking is an activity taught in many physical education programs. The activity, although very popular, has been studied minimally, and the energy expenditure for sport stacking is unknown. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to determine the energy expenditure of sport stacking in elementary school children and to compare that value to the energy expenditures of other activities often included in physical education curricula. 

Twenty-five children (mean age = 11 ± 1.6 years, 17 boys, 8 girls) had their expired gases analyzed via a metabolic cart for a 5-minute standing period to establish a baseline reading and for a 5-minute period while they were sport stacking. Energy expenditure was calculated as metabolic equivalents (METs). Repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare the mean METs between standing and stacking and between sex. Mean standing and stacking energy expenditures were significantly different. No significant differences were noted for mean energy expenditure by sex. The mean energy expenditure for sport stacking in elementary school children was 3.1 METs. The MET value for sport stacking is similar to other activities involved in typical physical education courses (e.g., bowling, dance, volleyball, weight lifting).

Physical educators incorporate a variety of activities into their curricula each year to enhance their students' physical development (Kelly & Melograno, 2004). One popular, yet sometimes controversial, activity that is being included in the physical education curriculum is sport stacking (Baumgarten, 2004; Murray & Udermann, 2004; Udermann & Murray, 2006). Sport stacking (previously referred to as cup stacking) originated some 20 years ago and has evolved into a worldwide sport, complete with its own governing body: The World Sport Stacking Association (www.theWSSA.com).

Sport stacking has been purported to "result in many direct and indirect benefits" (Hart, Smith, & DeChant-Bruennig, 2006, p. 154). However, the benefits that have been shown to occur through empirical studies are hand-eye coordination (Udermann, Murray, Mayer, & Sagendorf, 2004), reaction time (Udermann et al., 2004; Gibbons, E., Hendrick, J.L., & Bauer, J., 2007; Liggins, Coleman, Solis, & Li, 2007), bilateral coordination (Rhea, Ludwig, & Mokha, 2006), and dualhemispheric brain activity (Hart & Bixby, 2005).

The improvement in hand-eye coordination seems to be related to the time involved in sport stacking. Udermann et al. (2004) found that significant improvements occurred in hand-eye coordination and reaction time when secondgraders participated in sport stacking for 20-30 minutes per day, four days per week, over a fiveweek period. Hart et al. (2006) found conflicting results, where no significant improvements were noted for hand-eye coordination in elementary school children after a three-week instructional unit on sport stacking. It must be noted, however, that Hart et al.'s participants only sport stacked for 10- 15 minutes on each day and that different tests were used to measure hand-eye coordination. Liggins et al. (2007) found that a 12-week sport stacking program that had elementary school children stack cups for 15 minutes daily improved the students' reaction time. As a result, the authors stated, "Cup stacking may be a valuable component of the elementary school physical education curriculum."

The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) stated that one of the major purposes of physical education is to develop movement competency and proficiency in students (NASPE, 1995). NASPE defines movement competency as "the development of sufficient ability to enjoy participation in physical activities and establishes a foundation to facilitate continued motor skill acquisition and increased ability to engage in appropriate motor patterns in daily physical activity" (p. 2). Despite the growing list of research that indicates sport stacking is effective at enhancing key, skill-related components of physical fitness, i.e., hand-eye coordination and reaction time, for developing movement competency, especially object manipulation skills, many physical educators still are reluctant to accept the activity. The common reason cited for this reluctance is that sport stacking has "insufficient physical exertion, regardless of whatever other benefits [it] might accrue" (Stork, 2006, p. 4). So, the logical conclusion was to measure the precise amount of "physical exertion" required for one to sport stack and then compare that value to accepted activities that are often included in physical education curricula.

Energy expenditure is standardized by reporting it as a metabolic equivalent (MET). A MET is defined as follows:

MET (Metabolic Equivalent): The ratio of the work metabolic rate to the resting metabolic rate. One MET is defined as 1 kcal/kg/hour and is roughly equivalent to the energy cost of sitting quietly. A MET also is defined as oxygen uptake in ml/kg/min with one MET equal to the oxygen cost of sitting quietly, equivalent to 3.5 ml/kg/min. (The Compendium of Physical Activity, n.d.)

It is important to understand that "multiples of 1 MET indicate a higher energy cost for a specific activity. For example, a 2 MET activity requires twice the energy cost of sitting quietly. A 3 MET activity requires three times the energy cost of sitting quietly, and so forth" (President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, 2003, p. 2). Moreover, the energy expenditure for numerous activities is known and reported in METs. The American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association define exercise intensity with respect to METs as follows: light as < 3.0 METs; moderate as 3.0 to 6.0 METs; and vigorous as > 6.0 METs (Haskell, 2007). The purposes of our study were to measure the energy expenditure for sport stacking (in METs) and to compare that value to the METs of other activities often included in physical education curricula.

Participants Twenty-five children (mean age = 11 ± 1.6 years, 17 boys, 8 girls) participated in our study. The participants reported to the laboratory, were informed of the procedures, and signed consent forms (N.B., parental consent also was obtained for each participant). All procedures and forms were reviewed and approved by the sponsoring university's Institutional Review Board for the protection of human subjects.

Procedures Once the participants were informed of the testing procedures and signed, consent forms were secured, each participant was fitted with a standard head gear and mouthpiece to collect expired gases via a metabolic cart (AEI Technologies). After standing stationary for 5 minutes for baseline readings to be measured, the participant then sport stacked for 5 minutes, performing as many 3-6-3 stacks as possible (Note: the 3-6-3 stack is a fundamental pyramid used in sport stacking; it is described in the World Sport Stacking Rule Book as follows: "Cups are "upstacked" and "down stacked" from left to right or right to left (individual preference) in three stacks made up of three cups on the left, six cups in the center, and three cups on the right (3-6-3)." Each participant was required to complete a 3-6-3 stack in less than 8 seconds in order to be included in the study. The 8-second criterion was used to establish competency in the skill; an outstanding time for the 3-6-3 stack would be 3-4 seconds, and a complete novice time would he 10-12 seconds; thus a time of 8 seconds is of modest competency. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the mean and variability of the energy expenditure while standing and stacking for each subgroup. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare the mean energy expenditures between standing and stacking and between sex.

The energy expenditure for sport stacking in elementary school children was 10.7 ± 2.2 ml/kg/ min or 3.1 ± 0.05 METs (see Table 1), classifying sport stacking as a moderate-intensity activity. No significant differences were noted in energy expenditure between the boys (6.5 ± 1.0 ml/kg/ min or 1.9 ± 0.3 METs) and the girls (5.8 ± 1.3 ml/kg/min or 1.6 ± 0.4 METs) while standing or while stacking (boys, 10.75 ± 1.78 ml/kg/min or 3.19 ± 0.51 METs; girls, 10.0 ± 2.4 ml/kg/min or 2.9 ± 0.5 METs). Overall, the mean energy expenditure for both the boys and the girls while standing was 6.3 ± 1.1 ml/kg/min or 1.8 ± 0.3 METs. Statistically significant differences were noted between the mean standing and stacking values for both the boys and the girls for intragroup values. The energy expenditure of sport stacking is similar to other activities taught in the physical education curriculum, e.g., bowling, dance, volleyball, weight lifting (see Table 2).

Although many physical educators are reluctant to incorporate sport stacking into their curricula because of "insufficient physical exertion" (Stork, 2006, p. 4), our results indicate that sport stacking may be used as another form of a moderate-intensity activity. This, in conjunction with the previously found improvements in reaction time and hand-eye coordination (Udermann et at., 2004; Gibbons et at., 2007), suggests sport stacking would be a good activity to be taught in the physical education curriculum.

One purpose of our study was to ascertain the energy expenditure of sport stacking. Our results show that sport stacking has an energy expenditure of 3.1 METs in elementary school children. This value is comparable to energy expenditure of other activities (see Table 2) that are suggested activities to be taught in physical education curricula across the nation (Kelly & Melograno, 2004).

To be consistent with the quoted opinion expressed by Stork (2006) concerning sport stacking and physical exertion, those similar, moderate intensity activities (e.g., bowling, dance, volleyball, weight lifting) would have to be prohibited from inclusion in the physical education curricula because of "insufficient physical exertion." We, however, respectfully disagree with that opinion. We believe that many activities can help to promote children in movement competency, and we are in agreement with Kelly and Melograno (2004) who state:

Given the changing needs of learners, a wide variety of activities offers an opportunity to facilitate growth. Exposure to various activities enhances self-testing, exploration, and new interests. (p. 58)

While it is true that physical exertion is important for the development of cardiorespiratory endurance-one of the key components of physical fitness and wellness (Murray, 2007)-it is not the sole criterion by which an activity should be judged. Skill-related components, i.e., agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed (Murray, 2007) also are of importance. So, in light of the findings in our study that illustrate sport stacking has a moderate intensity level (i.e., 3.1 METs), we suggest that one should couple these findings with the fact that sport stacking is a unique activity-perhaps with the ability of enhancing student participation - that has been shown to improve elementary children's skill-related fitness components, particularly reaction time and hand-eye coordination. Thus, working sport stacking into the physical education curriculum can result in elementary school children engaging in moderate-intensity physical activity as well as potentially improving their skill-relate fitness components.

Table 1.

Energy Expenditure while Standing and Sport Stacking for Boys and Girls (Mean ± SD)

             Energy Expenditure Standing                    Energy Expenditure Sport Stacking   

             ml/kg/min           METs                                    ml/kg/min                         METs

Boys    6.5 ± 1.0                 1.9 ± 0.3                               11.1 ± 1.8                               *3.2 ± 0.5*

Girls     5.8 ± 1.3                 1.6 ± 0.4                               10.0 ± 2.4                            *2.9 ± 0.5*

Both    6.3 ± 1.1                  1.8 ± 0.3                               10.7 ± 2.2                             *3.1 ± 0.5** 

denotes statistically significant difference between standing and stacking values (p < 0.0005)
Note: No statistically significant differences were noted between boys and girls for any values

.Table 2.

Metabolic Equivalents (METs) of Various Activities Often Found in the Physical Education Curriculum

METs                    Activity

3.0                        bicycling, stationary, 50 watts, very light effort

3.0                        weight lifting (free, nautilus or universal-type), light or moderate effort 

3.0                        dancing, slow (e.g., waltz, foxtrot, slow dancing)

3.0                        bowling

3.0                        frisbee, ultimate

3.0                        golf, miniature, driving range

3.0                        shuffleboard, lawn bowling

3.0                        volleyball, non-competitive, 6-9 member team, general

3.3                        walking, 3.0 mph, level, moderate pace, firm surface

3.3                        canoeing, rowing, 2.0-3.9 mph, light effort

3.0                        diving, springboard or platform

3.0                        sailing, Sunfish/Laser/Hobby Cat, Keel boats, ocean sailing, yachting

3.0                        water volleyball

Note: All data taken from The Compendium of Physical Activity. (n.d.). Retrieved February 14, 2008 from The University of South Carolina's Web site: h://prevention.sph.sc.edtools/compendium.htm.

Sport stacking can be an excellent "instant activity" to get students moving and ready to begin a physical education class. For instance, sport stacking can be used for students who have arrived early and want to simply get moving and be active. Second, sport stacking can be worked into a number of other activities. Physical educators can set up stations involving sport stacking and other, more vigorous activities, like rope jumping and have students spend specific amounts of time at each station, and rotate at certain intervals. These are but two, of many possible, examples of how sport stacking could be included into the physical education curriculum; we are confident in the creativity of many physical educators to find meaningful ways of successfully interweaving sport stacking into their respective curricula to enhance their students' movement competency.

In the end, we believe that sport stacking can improve key skills that help with future object manipulation, and the skills can be developed in conjunction with other activities to develop overall physical fitness and movement competency. Moreover, we believe that sport stacking can be an excellent activity to use in a conceptual model of physical education. The conceptual model involves working on specific "concepts," hence the name, and "[i]t is expected... [to] transfer to new skills and situations" (Kelly & Melograno, 2004, p. 61). What is not known, however, is if sport stacking has a carry-over effect for increased reaction time or hand-eye coordination applicable to other activities?

Future studies should examine the carry-over effect of sport stacking on other activities.

In conclusion, the results of our study show that sport stacking has a similar energy expenditure as other activities that are commonly taught in physical education courses today (Kelly & Melograno, 2004). If one couples this finding with the fact that past research has shown sport stacking to be effective in enhancing key skills such as hand-eye coordination and reaction time for developing movement competency, especially object-manipulation skills, it is our belief that sport stacking can be a valuable component of the physical education curriculum.

Ainsworth, B. E. (2002). The compendium of physical activities tracking guide. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from the Prevention Research Center, Norman J. Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina's Web site: http://prevention.sph.sc.edu/tools/docs/documents_compendium.pdf.

Baumgarten, S. (2004). Questionable practices in physical education. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 75(5), 4, 9.

Gibbons, E., Hendrick, J. L., & Bauer, J. (2007). Distribution of practice on cup stacking performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78 (1), A46-A47.

Haskell, W.L., Lee, I., Pate, R. R., Powell, K. E., Blair, S. N., Franklin, B. A., Macera, C. A., Heath, G. W., Thompson, P. D., & Bauman, A. (2007). Physical Activity and Public Health: Updated recommendation for adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Circulation, 116, 1081-] 093.

Hart, M. A., & Bixby, W. R. (2005). EEG activation patterns during participation in a cup-stacking task. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76(1), A57.

Hart, M. A., Smith, L. A., & DeChant-Bruennig, A. (2006). Effect of participation in a cup stacking unit on hand-eye coordination of elementary children. The Physical Educator, 63(3), 154-159.

Kelly, L. E. & Melograno, V. J. (2004). Developing the phvsical education curriculum: an achievement-based approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

The purpose of this study was to use cup stacking, a brain-based activity, to see if there are any differences on the STAR Reading Test Scores for those who participate in cup stacking and for those who do not.

The purpose of this study was to use cup stacking, a brain-based activity, to see if there are any differences on the STAR Reading Test Scores for those who participate in cup stacking and for those who do not. The STAR Reading Test was used to assess students’ reading level before and after the study. The experimental group received cup stacking twice a week for four weeks between testing, and the control group did not. It was found that the experimental group who used cup stacking (n = 12) achieved higher scores on the STAR Test during the posttest than the control group, which had no cup stacking instruction (n = 12). It was concluded that the brain-based activity of cup stacking might have contributed to the increase in the achievement level of the experimental group on the STAR Reading Test.

There has been a great deal of research in the area of brain-based teaching methods during the last 20-30 years, some of which supports the claim that they work by intensive research. Many educators and teachers have experienced some encounter with left brain/right brain methods, but most have failed to fully implement these methods (Sousa, 2001).

Researchers are constantly providing new proven methods for educators to use in brain-based teaching. Activities which involve left to right movements and cross the midline of the body support this type of research. Cup stacking is one such activity. Students who participate in cup stacking enjoy this activity and it has been linked to improvements in reading because it uses the same connections in the brain that are used for reading (Fox, 2001). The STAR Reading Test will be used in this study because it is a quick and accurate way to measure reading comprehension.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of using cup stacking, which involves bilateral proficiency, to improve reading scores.

Cup stacking involves up stacking and down stacking a set of three, six, or twelve cups in a predetermined order. Its benefits include improving hand-eye accuracy, ambidexterity, bilateral proficiency (equal performance on both sides of the body), and exercising both sides of the brain and body (Fox, 2001; Blaydes, 2003). When bilateral proficiency is developed, a greater percentage of the right side of the brain which houses awareness, focus, creativity, patterns, and rhythm are utilized.

Brain Gym operates on the same concept of coordinating the brains and the bodies better.

The researchers at Brain Gym state:
Focus is the ability to coordinate the back and front areas of the brain. It is related to comprehension, the ability to find meaning, and the ability to experience details within their context. People without this basic skill are said to have attention disorders and difficulty in comprehending (Maguire, 2001).

Cup stacking incorporates crossing the vertical midline of the body using left-to-right movements. These are the same movements that are used in reading. To be a successful reader, one eye must be dominant for focusing, the other for blending (Maguire, 2001). When the midline is crossed, the visual fields in the brain overlap. This is fundamental to reading, writing, communicating, and problem solving if learning is to take place.

According to Paul Dennison, author of Brain Gym: Simple Activities for Whole Brain Learning, students must cross the midline, which connects the right and left brain. It is important for reading fluently, comprehension, writing creatively, spelling and remembering, listening and thinking at the same time, and increasing our athletic performance (Blaydes, 2001). In studies using Brain Gym techniques to develop both sides of the brain and body, it was found that the reading scores got better, rising from 55% to 89%, while the scores of the control group that received no Brain Gym support improved only 0-16 points (Maguire, 2001).

Bob Fox (2001), president and founder of Speed Stacks, Inc. purports that cup stacking can lead to bilateral proficiency, but I was unable to find any published research to support this claim. Two universities, however, are now in the process of doing research on this very topic.

I hypothesized that using cup stacking to increase bilateral proficiency would increase reading scores for sixth graders. Those students completing the cup stacking activities would perform better on the STAR Reading Test than those who did not complete the cupstacking.

My subjects were 24 black sixth grade students who had scored a Level II on the 5th Grade End of Grade Reading Test in May 2002. A Level II represents that they were below grade level. There were twelve girls and twelve boys. These students were divided in half with seven girls and five boys in the experimental group and five girls and seven boys in the control group. Homeroom teachers divided them into these groups. None of the participants in either group had practiced cup stacking activities in the past. They were not students from my reading or physical education classes. They represented several reading classes from our school. Participation for each group was optional.

The materials used were Speed Stacks cup stacking sets. Cup stacking was selected because it is an activity which, when done correctly, crosses the midline of the body. The Star Reading Test was also used as a pretest and posttest for both the experimental and control group. This test allows you to determine the appropriate level of challenge in reading for each child. It uses twenty-five in-text vocabulary questions plus authentic text passages to give you a precise measure of each student’s reading performance. It provides a score with the child’s grade level and month. (Example: 4.3 = fourth grade, third month).

All of the subjects gathered in the computer lab before doing the STAR Test so that the purpose of the study could be explained to them. They were told that half of them would participate in an additional activity and, while one group would simply come back for a posttest. The STAR Test took 10-20 minutes for students to complete. The study was designed to last for four weeks, but took five because of scheduling conflicts.

The experimental group participated in twice a week sessions of cup stacking lessons that lasted for 20 minutes each. A short video was shown during the first session to show them what cup stacking is. Then, they received progressive lessons, showing them how to do the actual cup stacking skills. This involved up stacking and down stacking a set of twelve cups in a predetermined way. They started with the 3-stack, the 6-stack, the 1-10-1 and finally the cycle. All students had mastered all of the skills, including the cycle, by the end of the study.

The results indicated that using the cup stacking activity to increase reading scores had a significant effect. The mean scores for the experimental and the control group are shown below. You can see that the experimental group went up from 4.26 to 4.38. This increase of .12 points is equivalent to approximately one month’s growth. This indicates that those students' average went up from fourth grade, second month, to fourth grade, third month. The control group, however, basically stayed the same, decreasing a miniscule .03

After the scores for both groups were compared, it was found that the range for the experimental group on the pretest was 5.1 and for the control group, 5.1. On the posttest, the range was 5.7 for the experimental group and 2.4 for the control group. Other scores are listed in the chart below.

 7nbsp;                            EXPERIMENTAL GROUP                  CONTROL GROUP 

 MEASURE                      PRETEST      POSTTEST                  PRETEST     POSTTEST 

Mode                                4.8                   4.7                               N/A               2.6

Standard Deviation      1.3                     1.3                                 1.4                0.8

Median                            4.5                    4.5                               4.5                4.0

The results of this study support the original hypothesis: Sixth grade students who participate in cup stacking activities will have higher scores on the STAR Reading Test than those students who do not participate in the cup stacking activities. The increase was .12 higher than the pretest score. This score can be regarded as significant because any increase in achievement, especially for struggling readers, can be considered a success. It has been my experience from past reading classes that I’ve taught that students generally show a decrease on the STAR Test during the months of March and April, when the study was done, due to burnout. Maguire (2001) states that educators should use brain-based movement activities in the classroom to access parts of the brain that may be inaccessible to them through other teaching methods. It can be used to enhance, rather than replace other programs or curricula. Also, I informally observed that the students who used the cups were highly motivated to exhibit success and enjoyed this activity.

Blaydes, J. (2003). Action Based Learning. Retrieved January 18, 2003 from http://www.action basedlearning.com/cgi-bin/article.pl

Blaydes, J. (2001, December). The ABCD’s of NeuroKinesiology-Action Based Cognitive Development: How Bodily Movement Facilitates Cognition. Paper presented at the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, Greensboro, NC. Fox, B. (2001, December). Cup Stacking with Speed Stacks. Session presented at the 

American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD), Greensboro, NC.

Maguire, T. (2001). Brain Gym. Retrieved March 11, 2003, from http://www.braingym connect.com

Sousa, D. A. (2001). How the Brain Learns: A Classroom Teacher’s Guide (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

For any physical education instructor whose lesson plans were thwarted by bad weather, lack of facilities or a scheduling conflict, there's a new book that capitalizes on limited-space activities. Just released No Gym? No Problem! includes nearly 100 "pilot-tested and engaging games and activities."

Is Sport stacking a part of this? You guessed it, sport stacking with Speed Stacks is high on the list and received three and a half pages of coverage. In fact, the author Charmain Sutherland wrote a personal note to Bob Fox, president and founder of Speed Stacks, thanking him for what he has done in the field of physical education. "Kids love Speed Stacks and sport stacking," she said.

According to Sutherland, sport stacking with Speed Stacks and the other activities included in her book:

• meet National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) standards,
• use equipment effectively and efficiently in tight spaces,
• overcome space limitations, giving children a safe environment in which to learn and grow; and
• minimize time and budget demands.

Says Human Kinetics, "The activities presented may be used individually or mixed and matched to create lesson plans and activity sessions that reinforce your objectives for skill, concept, or fitness development. Whatever your goals, No Gym? No Problem! provides you with all the tools you need in order to safely execute limited-space activities and provide children with the best possible learning environment. The book provides complete lesson plan with an activity, with everything the professional needs."

So what's the conclusion and link to real life?

"Sport stacking is much newer than soccer, but it is growing, has value, and is now considered a sport. You will need new skills for this activity and will have to practice to improve."

Results and conclusion: The overall improvements achieved by the children assessed let the author claim that even a short period of proposed training, i.e. sport stacking combined with physically active games, affected not  only children’s hand-eye coordination and several related fine motor coordination skills, such as handwriting velocity, but also their general motor  coordination. Moreover, among the 15 children, who completed the posttest, 5 were classified as having DCD in the pre-test; but only one of them  was still classified as being “at risk” for DCD after the post-test. Nevertheless, according to the CSAPPA results, there were no significant results pertaining to children’s generalized self-efficacy toward physical activity.